Einstein's Riddle

Einstein's Riddle
There are 5 houses of 5 different colours. In each house lives a person of a different nationality. Each of the 5 residents drinks a certain type of beverage, smokes a certain brand of cigar, and keeps a certain pet. None of them have the same pet, smoke the same brand of cigar or drink the same beverage.

The question is: Who owns the fish?

Clues:

► The Brit lives in the red house.
► The Swede keeps dogs as pets.
► The Dane drinks tea.
► The green house is on the left of the white house.
► The resident of the green house drinks coffee.
► The person who smokes Pall Mall rears birds.
► The resident of the yellow house smokes Dunhill.
► The resident of the centre house drinks milk.
► The Norwegian lives in the first house.
► The person who smokes Blends lives next to the one who keeps cats.
► The person who keeps the horse lives next to the one who smokes Dunhill.
► The person who smokes Bluemasters drinks beer.
► The German smokes Prince.
► The Norwegian lives next to the blue house.
► The person who smokes Blends has a neighbour who drinks water.
Einstein's Riddle: Hint

Statements 8 and 9 give us definite information, the first house belongs to a Norwegian and the third house's owner drinks milk. Statement 9 together with statement 14 allow us to deduce that the second house is blue. The possibilities for all the remaining assignments are summarized in the following table. Printing this table and crossing off possibilities that can be eliminated using the statements is a good way to proceed.

Number
1
2
3
4
5

House Color
Red
Green
White
Yellow
Blue
Red
Green
White
Yellow
Red
Green
White
Yellow
Red
Green
White
Yellow

Nationality
Norway
Britain
Sweden
Denmark
Germany
Britain

Sweden

Denmark

Germany
Britain

Sweden

Denmark

Germany
Britain

Sweden

Denmark

Germany

Beverage
Tea
Coffee
Beer
Water
Tea
Coffee
Beer
Water
Milk
Tea
Coffee
Beer
Water
Tea
Coffee
Beer
Water

Cigar
Pall Mall
Dunhill
Bluemasters
Prince
Blends
Pall Mall
Dunhill
Bluemasters
Prince
Blends
Pall Mall
Dunhill
Bluemasters
Prince
Blends
Pall Mall
Dunhill
Bluemasters
Prince
Blends
Pall Mall
Dunhill
Bluemasters
Prince
Blends

Pet
Dogs
Birds
Cats
Horses
Fish
Dogs
Birds
Cats
Horses
Fish
Dogs
Birds
Cats
Horses
Fish
Dogs
Birds
Cats
Horses
Fish
Dogs
Birds
Cats
Horses
Fish

Answer the German owns the fish

flying onion

Chapter 1. Year Dot.

The Earth is very old, the universe is older still. Life had plenty of time to develop.How much time has been available on the Earth, and in the universe, for life to form? Methods of estimation, early and more recent. The Earth is now dated 4.6 billion years by radioactivity; the universe is dated 1020 billion years by observations of star light.

Chapter 2. Friends and Relatives.

All life on Earth is related to a single ancestor. All forms of life are much more closely related than first appearances might suggest. Major differences, even between animals, plants and bacteria, are superficial. The inner workings of their cells are virtually identical. All life depends on the same source of energy, which is the simple combination of hydrogen and oxygen to make water. Life on Earth had a single origin, making the search for it easier.

Chapter 3. Dating the Ancestors.

When a timescale is added to relatedness, life is found to be very old. Historical ideas about the youth of the Earth, some of the earlier beliefs and influential personalities. Recent progress in dating fossils. Scientific distortions such as hypothetical missing links and the Piltdown Man.

Chapter 4. Before the Ancestors.

Life is at least as old as the Earth. New technology enables protein or DNA sequences to be compared, but a fresh argument questions whether this provides a reliable evolutionary timescale.

Chapter 5. Life's Not Simple.

Life on Earth has always been complex. Primitive life more than 3.8 billion years ago was already highly complex, with cells, genes, proteins and an intricate biochemical metabolism.

Chapter 6. Thanks to Thermodynamics.

If life was never simple, how did it start? The central paradox of life: since life can only be complex, how can it ever have been simple? The evolution of life's chemistry happened in the 10 billion years or so before the Earth existed.

Chapter 7. Non-Event.

The moment life did not come into existence. There wasn't one.

Chapter 8. Spreading the Message.

Life is universal - but don't bother searching for it. Doubling processes, such as gene duplication and cell division, are so fundamental to life that a single primitive cell, almost regardless of its inefficiency, could colonise a sterile ocean in a blink of geological time. Ice comets could preserve and transport inter-stellar chemistry. The Oort Cloud and Kuiper Belt are great reservoirs of cometary material that can survive passage through the atmosphere into the oceans of the Earth.

Chapter 9. Unintelligent Design.

Life's inheritance. Life's timescale is at least that of the universe, not merely the Earth. Life has changed very little in the Earth's accepted timescale of 4.6 billion years. Evolution has been merely a few simple variations on an underlying biochemical theme. Innovations have been trivial. Far from the age of the Earth providing any constraint on the antiquity of life, ultimately an understanding of the origin of life may throw fresh light on the historical timeframe of the universe.

Chapter 10. Life: To Be Continued?

Life could do better, but probably won't. A genome is a program for the construction of a living being and we are on the point of being able to rewrite that program to manufacture any grotesque combination. The human species has reached the critical point where it can change its own destiny. On the other hand, human intelligence and social behaviour have changed little in thousands of years and will change little in future millennia

January 2009 courses.itinary,,,,,,,

review: january 2009
Astronomy courses will be presented in PowerPoint. Some of the charts will be in Library Reserves (hardcopy), and Bookstore. The plan is to offer these courses in jan-mar.. (where almost all the charts will be listed). To access courses, visit: website.. In order to access the materials you will need your user name and password then click on url. (This will not work until the schedule is loaded, usually the first day of class)..

Astronomy Lec/Lab PHYS117
Astronomy Lec/Lab PHYS117 for Spring 2009) has two evening astronomy classes. There are also Lecture only PHYS107 that meet on fri-Tu 10:45-12:05 and 4-5:20PM. The t323Lecture/Lab class will require the completion of at least 3 of the 6 labs assigned. Enrollment in the class will be limited by the size of the room (probably 22 to 34), but the Lecture/Lab course size will be limited by our facilities and equipment (17 at present).

The content of the courses will be

PHYS10 11:45 AM Solar System

PHYS11 4:00 PM Deep Sky

PHYS12 Tu 6-9 Solar System

PHYS13 Th 6-9 Deep Sky
Summer 2009 there will likely be a sat-tues 7:45-10:15PM PHYS16 during the beginning (6 week) session. Summer is a great time for astronomy labs! autumn 2009 schedule will be similar,

Due to next weeks prospect of severe weather in all circumstances the latest info will come from instructor.all corespondance if there are different instructions will be posted in foyer notice board.

Across the rhythm of an oceans tide the beat of two hearts can still be heard

Across the rhythm of an oceans tide the beat of two hearts can still be heard

Throw out all the notes ,

The kinetic energy of an electron emmitted from a photoemmissive surface
is equal to the frequency of the incident light multiplied by Plank's
constant. Plank's constant is named after it's discoverer, John Constant,
who stumbled across the number while playing Keno on a transatlantic flight
to London in 1937. This discovery was somewhat fortuitous for Constant, as
he inadvertantly got on the wrong flight- (He was supposed to flt to
Zurich)

When Constant eventually arrived in Zurich he met a young Albert
Einstein-who was at the time significantly younger than he would be in 2
decades time. The purpose of this meeting was twofold-

1) To redefine the laws of space and time, and
2) To redefine 'Gregory's' top ten list of Europe's finest strip-clubs.

Sharing a genuine passion for advanced mathematical physics, Constant and
Einstein had no trouble with the second of these objectives, however the
listing of London whorehouse 'Tittany's" over Munich's finest Brothel,
elaborately named with typical German wit and flare as 'the designated
establishment abiding by the predetermined council guidelines that allows
men to enjoy a night of efficient German sexual intercourse in accordance
with council regulation 17 tripple x c B 4.' This inavertantly triggered
the second world war, which was fundamental in shaping today's
understanding that there is not one single attractive woman in all of the
Brittish Isles.

The first of these objectives did prove slightly more difficult, and it
took 5 years for the theory of relativity to be developed. However there
was one lingering critical problem- The theory of relativity was incredibly
difficult to understand, inspite of all the publicity concerning the
assasination of JFK. Many people he did try to understand it formed
self-help groups. Einstein once read it out on hospital radio, and no fewer
than 12 people got out of coma's, packed their bags and went
home. Unperturbed, Einstein decided that he would use telephone counselling
service 'lifeline' to get his theory to the world. Einstein talked to 7
people that day, all of whom committed suicide. Einstein usually wouldn't
have minded that much, but one of those was a wrong number- he phoned up to
order a pizza.

Einstein 'passed on' in 1967, incurring a penalty against his rugby side
for breaking one of the most fundamental laws of the game. Furious with the
decision, Einstein ran out to the road screaming, where he was hit by a
truck.

The way the water wends

It's twice the rate at which rain doth fall
Into how fast it's a-gittin' there, square.

Plus what it is a holdin' it back times
Deux points trois ( l'eau sanitaire).

And how far thou art toward heaven
(or toward hell better not go there!).

Now, I ain't the one who made this up,
But I do believe it's true.
And if you want to check it out,
Right here is what you do:

Talk with them fellers, Leon and Dan'l
(They's the ones who told it to me).
Though, strange, when I asked them who they wuz,
They said "Oil her" and "Burn you, Lee!"

Winding along the worrisome way,
Things heat up, and so I guess
You better not forget to
Account for shear distress.

My palpitatin' heart is a-pumpin',
It's plumb positively displaced!
And those heady words, "Energy o'er weight,"
My feeble mind just can't erase.

I'm feeling hot, tired and hammered,
Need a cool shower, I would say.
Ain't got no indoor plumbin' here,
But I figgered me another way...

Got eleven sixty gallon water barrels;
The old horse can lift 'em six feet,
And wash me down in just a minute,
That'll be perfect and complete!

Schroedinger's cat

I have been reading of Schroedinger's cat
But none of my cats are at all like that.
This unusual animal (so it is said)
Is simultaneously live and dead!
What I don't understand is just why he
Can't be one or other, unquestionably.
My future now hangs in between eigenstates.
In one I'm enlightened, the other I ain't.
If you understand, then show me the way
And rescue my psyche from quantum decay.
But if this queer thing has perplexed even you,
Then I will and won't see you in Schroedinger's zoo.

UNIFIED FIELD THEORY

In physics, a unified field theory is a type of field theory that allows all of the fundamental forces between elementary particles to be written in terms of a single field. There is no accepted unified field theory yet, and this remains an open line of research. The term was coined by Albert Einstein who attempted to unify the general theory of relativity with electromagnetism. A Theory of Everything is closely related to unified field theory, but differs by not requiring the basis of nature to be fields, and also attempts to explain all physical constants of nature.

This attempts to describes unified field theory as it is currently understood in connection with quantum theory.

There may be a reason why the correct description of nature has to be a unified field theory; this has led to a great deal of progress in modern theoretical physics and continues to motivate researchers to derive to find the answer. Unified field theory is only one possible approach to unification of physics.

According to our current understanding of physics, forces between objects (e.g. gravitation) are not transmitted directly between the two objects, but instead go through intermediary entities called fields. All four of the known fundamental forces are mediated by fields, which in the Standard Model of particle physics result from exchange of bosons (integral-spin particles). Specifically the four interactions to be unified are (from strongest to weakest):

Strong nuclear interaction: the interaction responsible for holding quarks together to form neutrons and protons, and holding neutrons and protons together to form nuclei. The exchange particle that mediates this force is the gluon.
Electromagnetic interaction: the familiar interaction that acts on electrically charged particles. The photon is the exchange particle for this force.
Weak nuclear interaction: a repulsive short-range interaction responsible for radioactivity, that acts on electrons, neutrinos and quarks. It is governed by the W and Z bosons.
Gravitational interaction: a long-range attractive interaction that acts on all particles with mass. The postulated exchange particle has been named the graviton.
Modern unified field theory attempts to bring these four force-mediating fields together into a single framework. Quantum theory seems to limit any deterministic theory's descriptive power (in simple terms, no theory can predict events more accurately than allowed by the Planck constant).

The first successful (classical) unified field theory was developed by James Clerk Maxwell. In 1820 Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that electric currents exerted forces on magnets, while in 1831, Michael Faraday made the observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce electric currents. Until then, electricity and magnetism had been thought of as unrelated phenomena. In 1864, Maxwell published his famous paper on a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field. This was the first example of a theory that was able to encompass previous separate field theories (namely electricity and magnetism) to provide a unifying theory of electromagnetism. Later, in his theory of special relativity Albert Einstein was able to explain the unity of electricity and magnetism as a consequence of the unification of space and time into an entity we now call spacetime.

In 1921 Theodor Kaluza extended General Relativity to five dimensions and in 1926 Oscar Klein proposed that the fourth spatial dimension be curled up (or compactified) into a small, unobserved circle. This was dubbed Kaluza-Klein theory. It was quickly noticed that this extra spatial direction gave rise to an additional force similar to electricity and magnetism. This was pursued as the basis for some of Albert Einstein's later unsuccessful attempts at a unified field theory. Einstein and others pursued various non-quantum approaches to unifying these forces; however as quantum theory became generally accepted as fundamental, most physicists came to view all such theories as doomed to failure.

In 1963 American physicist Sheldon Glashow proposed that the weak nuclear force and electricity and magnetism could arise from a partially unified electroweak theory. In 1967, Pakistani Abdus Salam and American Steven Weinberg independently revised Glashow's theory by having the masses for the W particle and Z particle arise through spontaneous symmetry breaking with the Higgs mechanism. This unified theory was governed by the exchange of four particles: the photon for electromagnetic interactions, a neutral Z particle and two charged W particles for weak interaction. As a result of the spontaneous symmetry breaking, the weak force becomes short range and the Z and W bosons acquire masses of 80.4 and 91.2 GeV / c2, respectively. Their theory was first given experimental support by the discovery of weak neutral currents in 1973. In 1983, the Z and W bosons were first produced at CERN by Carlo Rubbia's team. For their insights, Salam, Glashow and Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979. Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer received the Prize in 1984.

After Gerardus 't Hooft showed the Glashow-Weinberg-Salam electroweak interactions was mathematically consistent, the electroweak theory became a template for further attempts at unifying forces. In 1974, Sheldon Glashow and Howard Georgi proposed unifying the strong and electroweak interactions into a Grand Unified Theory, which would have observable effects for energies much above 100 GeV.

Since then there have been several proposals for Grand Unified Theories, although none is currently universally accepted. A major problem for experimental tests of such theories is the energy scale involved, which is well beyond the reach of current accelerators. Grand Unified Theories make predictions for the relative strengths of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces, and in 1991 LEP determined that supersymmetric theories have the correct ratio of couplings for a Georgi-Glashow Grand Unified Theory. Many Grand Unified Theories predict that the proton can decay, and if this were to be seen, details of the decay products could give hints at more aspects of the Grand Unified Theory. It is at present unknown if the proton can decay, although experiments have determined a lower bound of 1035 years for its lifetime.


The current state of unified field theories
Gravity has yet to be successfully included in a theory of everything. Simply trying to combine the graviton with the strong and electroweak interactions runs into fundamental difficulties (the resulting theory is not renormalizable). Theoretical physicists have not yet formulated a widely accepted, consistent theory that combines general relativity and quantum mechanics. The incompatibility of the two theories remains an outstanding problem in the field of physics. Some theoretical physicists currently believe that a quantum theory of general relativity may require frameworks other than field theory itself, such as string theory or loop quantum gravity. One promising string theory is the heterotic string which can tie together gravity and the three other forces into a tight connection. Other candidate string theories do not have this feature of unifying the forces and gravity in a compelling manner. Loop quantum gravity does not appear to link the electroweak and strong forces to gravity, and if so, it would fail as a unified field theory. Ultimately, nature may not be best understood in terms of a unified field theory; this conceptualization may not be correct, although it has led to advances in physics.


Non-mainstream theories
Albert Einstein famously spent the last two decades of his life searching for a Unified Field Theory. This has led to a great deal of fascination with the subject and has drawn many people from outside the mainstream of the physics community to work on such a theory. Most of this work typically appears in non-peer reviewed sources, such as self-published books or personal websites. The work that appears outside of the standard scientific channels may or may not be considered pseudoscience by definition.

Examples of "non-mainstream" theories are Heim theory, and Antony Garrett Lisi's "An Exceptionally Simple Theory of Everything"who eventually may come up with the answer to this.

BBC DRAMA ,EINSTEIN AN EDDINGTON

I watched a brilliant drama about the relationship between Albert einstein and sir arthur eddington around the time of the nineteen teens, the connection between Albert einstein and Sir Arthur eddington in the bbc film. Albert Einstein the most famous scientist of the 20th century, and i would say the most important in all of human history. So great is Einstein’s reputation that it makes that of Arthur Stanley Eddington — a good astronomer and a gifted popularizer of science — seem to pale into insignificance. Yet without Eddington’s 1919 eclipse expedition, which provided early proof of general relativity, Einstein’s discoveries might have stayed hidden for years before becoming known outside of the German scientific community, let alone the public/world.
Einstein and Eddington is about physicists, not physics.Although in the film they do attempt to explain special relativity in a scene using Einstein, his sons, a boat,as an example. and a handful of references to Einstein inventing new symbols,also in the film his first wife (and fellow physicist) Mileva who he is alleged to have neglected , played by Lucy Cohu.they also do the obligatory sheet-and-heavy-object explanation of general relativity using a table cloth an a loaf of bread, the film’s main focus is the parallel lives of the two during the First World War.
With Einstein and Eddington being both pacifists, This caused both of them great emotional difficulties, struggling to rise above the war’s horrible bitterness stand out as some of the films most effective scenes. At the outset of the war, Einstein refuses to sign a letter aligning German science with the German army. Eddington’s decision to correspond in secret with Einstein despite officially not being allowed, took guts.
Einstein and Eddington is a compelling sometimes emotional drama that although covering physics should appeal to non scientific types. Serkis,Tennant and supporting cast ensure the result is a rare drama that brings out the human side of physicists,but still pokes fun at the popular image of Einstein as a disheveled haired eccentric.All things said a brilliant drama.

GENERAL RELATIVITY THEORYS

General relativity

General relativity is a theory of gravitation and to understand the background to the theory we have to look at how theories of gravitation developed. Aristotle's notion of the motion of bodies impeded understanding of gravitation for a long time. He believed that force could only be applied by contact; force at a distance being impossible, and a constant force was required to maintain a body in uniform motion.

Copernicus's view of the solar system was important as it allowed sensible consideration of gravitation. Kepler's laws of planetary motion and Galileo's understanding of the motion and falling bodies set the scene for Newton's theory of gravity which was presented in the Principia in 1687. Newton's law of gravitation is expressed by

F = G M1M2/d2

where F is the force between the bodies of masses M1, M2 and d is the distance between them. G is the universal gravitational constant.

After receiving their definitive analytic form from Euler, Newton's axioms of motion were reworked by Lagrange, Hamilton, and Jacobi into very powerful and general methods, which employed new analytic quantities, such as potential, related to force but remote from everyday experience. Newton's universal gravitation was considered proved correct, thanks to the work of Clairaut and Laplace. Laplace looked at the stability of the solar system in Traité du Mécanique Céleste in 1799. In fact the so-called three-body problem was extensively studied in the 19th Century and was not properly understood until much later. The study of the gravitational potential allowed variations in gravitation caused by irregularities in the shape of the earth to be studied both practically and theoretically. Poisson used the gravitational potential approach to give an equation which, unlike Newton's, could be solved under rather general conditions.

Newton's theory of gravitation was highly successful. There was little reason to question it except for one weakness which was to explain how each of the two bodies knew the other was there. Some profound remarks about gravitation were made by Maxwell in 1864. His major work A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field (1864) was written

... to explain the electromagnetic action between distant bodies without assuming the existence of forces capable of acting directly at sensible distances.

At the end of the work Maxwell comments on gravitation.

After tracing to the action of the surrounding medium both the magnetic and the electric attractions and repulsions, and finding them to depend on the inverse square of the distance, we are naturally led to inquire whether the attraction of gravitation, which follows the same law of the distance, is not also traceable to the action of a surrounding medium.

However Maxwell notes that there is a paradox caused by the attraction of like bodies. The energy of the medium must be decreased by the presence of the bodies and Maxwell said

As I am unable to understand in what way a medium can possess such properties, I cannot go further in this direction in searching for the cause of gravitation.

In 1900 Lorentz conjectured that gravitation could be attributed to actions which propagate with the velocity of light. Poincaré, in a paper in July 1905 (submitted days before Einstein's special relativity paper), suggested that all forces should transform according the Lorentz transformations. In this case he notes that Newton's law of gravitation is not valid and proposed gravitational waves which propagated with the velocity of light.

In 1907, two years after proposing the special theory of relativity, Einstein was preparing a review of special relativity when he suddenly wondered how Newtonian gravitation would have to be modified to fit in with special relativity. At this point there occurred to Einstein, described by him as the happiest thought of my life , namely that an observer who is falling from the roof of a house experiences no gravitational field. He proposed the Equivalence Principle as a consequence:-

... we shall therefore assume the complete physical equivalence of a gravitational field and the corresponding acceleration of the reference frame. This assumption extends the principle of relativity to the case of uniformly accelerated motion of the reference frame.

After the major step of the equivalence principle in 1907, Einstein published nothing further on gravitation until 1911. Then he realised that the bending of light in a gravitational field, which he knew in 1907 was a consequence of the equivalence principle, could be checked with astronomical observations. He had only thought in 1907 in terms of terrestrial observations where there seemed little chance of experimental verification. Also discussed at this time is the gravitational redshift, light leaving a massive body will be shifted towards the red by the energy loss of escaping the gravitational field.

Einstein published further papers on gravitation in 1912. In these he realised that the Lorentz transformations will not apply in this more general setting. Einstein also realised that the gravitational field equations were bound to be non-linear and the equivalence principle appeared to only hold locally.

This work by Einstein prompted others to produce gravitational theories. Work by Nordström, Abraham and Mie was all a consequence of Einstein's, so far failed, attempts to find a satisfactory theory. However Einstein realised his problems.

If all accelerated systems are equivalent, then Euclidean geometry cannot hold in all of them.

Einstein then remembered that he had studied Gauss's theory of surfaces as a student and suddenly realised that the foundations of geometry have physical significance. He consulted his friend Grossmann who was able to tell Einstein of the important developments of Riemann, Ricci (Ricci-Curbastro) and Levi-Civita. Einstein wrote

... in all my life I have not laboured nearly so hard, and I have become imbued with great respect for mathematics, the subtler part of which I had in my simple-mindedness regarded as pure luxury until now.

In 1913 Einstein and Grossmann published a joint paper where the tensor calculus of Ricci and Levi-Civita is employed to make further advances. Grossmann gave Einstein the Riemann-Christoffel tensor which, together with the Ricci tensor which can be derived from it, were to become the major tools in the future theory. Progress was being made in that gravitation was described for the first time by the metric tensor but still the theory was not right. When Planck visited Einstein in 1913 and Einstein told him the present state of his theories Planck said

As an older friend I must advise you against it for in the first place you will not succeed, and even if you succeed no one will believe you.

Planck was wrong, but only just, for when Einstein was to succeed with his theory it was not readily accepted. It was the second half of 1915 that saw Einstein finally put the theory in place. Before that however he had written a paper in October 1914 nearly half of which is a treatise on tensor analysis and differential geometry. This paper led to a correspondence between Einstein and Levi-Civita in which Levi-Civita pointed out technical errors in Einstein's work on tensors. Einstein was delighted to be able to exchange ideas with Levi-Civita whom he found much more sympathetic to his ideas on relativity than his other colleagues.

At the end of June 1915 Einstein spent a week at Göttingen where he lectured for six 2 hour sessions on his (incorrect) October 1914 version of general relativity. Hilbert and Klein attended his lectures and Einstein commented after leaving Göttingen

To my great joy, I succeeded in convincing Hilbert and Klein completely.

The final steps to the theory of general relativity were taken by Einstein and Hilbert at almost the same time. Both had recognised flaws in Einstein's October 1914 work and a correspondence between the two men took place in November 1915. How much they learnt from each other is hard to measure but the fact that they both discovered the same final form of the gravitational field equations within days of each other must indicate that their exchange of ideas was helpful.

On the 18th November he made a discovery about which he wrote For a few days I was beside myself with joyous excitement . The problem involved the advance of the perihelion of the planet Mercury. Le Verrier, in 1859, had noted that the perihelion (the point where the planet is closest to the sun) advanced by 38" per century more than could be accounted for from other causes. Many possible solutions were proposed, Venus was 10% heavier than was thought, there was another planet inside Mercury's orbit, the sun was more oblate than observed, Mercury had a moon and, really the only one not ruled out by experiment, that Newton's inverse square law was incorrect. This last possibility would replace the 1/d2 by 1/dp, where p = 2+ε for some very small number ε. By 1882 the advance was more accurately known, 43'' per century. From 1911 Einstein had realised the importance of astronomical observations to his theories and he had worked with Freundlich to make measurements of Mercury's orbit required to confirm the general theory of relativity. Freundlich confirmed 43" per century in a paper of 1913. Einstein applied his theory of gravitation and discovered that the advance of 43" per century was exactly accounted for without any need to postulate invisible moons or any other special hypothesis. Of course Einstein's 18 November paper still does not have the correct field equations but this did not affect the particular calculation regarding Mercury. Freundlich attempted other tests of general relativity based on gravitational redshift, but they were inconclusive.

Also in the 18 November paper Einstein discovered that the bending of light was out by a factor of 2 in his 1911 work, giving 1.74". In fact after many failed attempts (due to cloud, war, incompetence etc.) to measure the deflection, two British expeditions in 1919 were to confirm Einstein's prediction by obtaining 1.98" 0.30" and 1.61" 0.30".

On 25 November Einstein submitted his paper The field equations of gravitation which give the correct field equations for general relativity. The calculation of bending of light and the advance of Mercury's perihelion remained as he had calculated it one week earlier.

Five days before Einstein submitted his 25 November paper Hilbert had submitted a paper The foundations of physics which also contained the correct field equations for gravitation. Hilbert's paper contains some important contributions to relativity not found in Einstein's work. Hilbert applied the variational principle to gravitation and attributed one of the main theorem's concerning identities that arise to Emmy Noether who was in Göttingen in 1915. No proof of the theorem is given. Hilbert's paper contains the hope that his work will lead to the unification of gravitation and electromagnetism.

In fact Emmy Noether's theorem was published with a proof in 1918 in a paper which she wrote under her own name. This theorem has become a vital tool in theoretical physics. A special case of Emmy Noether's theorem was written down by Weyl in 1917 when he derived from it identities which, it was later realised, had been independently discovered by Ricci in 1889 and by Bianchi (a pupil of Klein) in 1902.

Immediately after Einstein's 1915 paper giving the correct field equations, Karl Schwarzschild found in 1916 a mathematical solution to the equations which corresponds to the gravitational field of a massive compact object. At the time this was purely theoretical work but, of course, work on neutron stars, pulsars and black holes relied entirely on Schwarzschild's solutions and has made this part of the most important work going on in astronomy today.

Einstein had reached the final version of general relativity after a slow road with progress but many errors along the way. In December 1915 he said of himself

That fellow Einstein suits his convenience. Every year he retracts what he wrote the year before.

Most of Einstein's colleagues were at a loss to understand the quick succession of papers, each correcting, modifying and extending what had been done earlier. In December 1915 Ehrenfest wrote to Lorentz referring to the theory of November 25, 1915. Ehrenfest and Lorentz corresponded about the general theory of relativity for two months as they tried to understand it. Eventually Lorentz understood the theory and wrote to Ehrenfest saying I have congratulated Einstein on his brilliant results . Ehrenfest responded

Your remark "I have congratulated Einstein on his brilliant results" has a similar meaning for me as when one Freemason recognises another by a secret sign.

In March 1916 Einstein completed an article explaining general relativity in terms more easily understood. The article was well received and he then wrote another article on relativity which was widely read and went through over 20 printings.

Today relativity plays a role in many areas, cosmology, the big bang theory etc. and now has been checked by experiment to a high degree of accuracy.

Solve Mathematical Equations Automatically
A single-click equation solver? Nonsense! You'd need MathCAD for that, and that costs a fortune! Or do you really?Solve mathematical equations with just one mouse click! Forget about mathematical problems once and forever! Spend quality time on a TV program or your favorite computer game instead of spending it on a math home assignment (just kidding!). Let Equation Wizard solve your math problems on a computer, and see the solution written in a proper mathematical notation with comments in plain English.Equation Wizard by ElasticLogic solves what your calculator cannot help you with. Solve algebraic equations written in any form completely automatically! Equation Wizard solves algebraic problems by finding both real and imaginary roots for your equation. It can solve every equation you throw at it. Linear, square, cubic or nth power, expressions, square roots, cube roots, and even nth roots and factorials are easily solved with Equation Wizard. Stop wasting your brain resources on routine operations. Computers are kings of number crunching – let them show their best!Proving yourself again and again that you're good at math? Sure you can solve a math problem, but is it worth your time? Stop using your brain to solve no-brainer equations! Give yourself a break and let your computer do what you paid it for (or, rather, what you paid for it!). Just type what you see in your textbook, and if it happens to be an equation, it will be solved!Got an interesting assignment that's a real challenge to your abilities? Let Equation Wizard teach you a lesson on how to solve that kind of problems with a little demonstration. It'll show you how to solve the problem step by step. Equation Wizard comments every step and every action it performs to simplify and solve the equation in plain English. "Raising to power", "Collecting terms", "Reducing to the common denominator" are typical comments to expect while Equation Wizard works on your problem.Solve linear, square and cube equations, high order and nth degree, simplify and calculate expressions with Equation Wizard. Equation Wizard works its way exactly as an experienced mathematician (and your teacher). It reduces the equation to a canonical form, determines its order and finds its roots. The result looks so clear and natural you'd never tell it's a work by a computer!What are you waiting for? Download Equation Wizard now! As you'd guess, it's right here: http://www.equationwizard.com/

LIFE METAPHYSICALLY IS EXEMPLIFIED BY THE LAW OF ATTRACTION

"Law Of Attraction And Energy Waves"
If you go into the details you will see that the Law of Attraction can be made clear in a systematic way with the help of Quantum Physics. According to Quantum physicists the atom is not made up of elements. Until earlier last century, subatomic particles that comprise atoms, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, were considered the smallest, most fundamental units of matter. But science has since determined that these subatomic particles are comprised of even smaller, more basic constituents called quarks. And what are quarks made of? Quarks come in different varieties, but as yet no constituent smaller parts have been found, although theories such as string theory suggest a more basic substructure. You know the famous equation, E=MC2? It was discovered by Albert Einstein, who made several other groundbreaking contributions to science and mathematics. He explains the origins of the equation and how it relates to what we know about the universe. What else do we know about energy? Physical laws tells us that energy can't be created or destroyed, but it can change forms. Energy is never still, it is constantly vibrating. "Frequency" is the term used to describe this vibration, referring to the waves that energy travels in. Different types of energy pulsate at different speeds, causing them to have different frequencies. If you delve further into the Law of Attraction you'll find that energy waves of similar frequencies are actually drawn toward each other. Everything in the universe is constructed from a core of energy, even solid objects. And remember that all energy vibrates and therefore has a frequency - even if the objects appear totally solid and immobile. When success or failure happens in your life, energy frequencies are at work there, too. The Law of Attraction is a hypothetical theory that is ordinarily connected to new age thinking. It holds that you must not fixate on negative events, because the meaning of life metaphysically is exemplified by the Law of Attraction. The secret is simply that you will obtain whatever you focus on. To sum it up, your fate is decided by your thoughts.
About the Author: In case you examine the specifics, you will observe that the law of attraction can be illustrated in a methodical manner with the aid of quantum physics. Until recently, electrons, protons and neutrons were considered the smallest units of matter. But now it is common knowledge that they break down into still smaller components called quarks. Thinking positively to bring about positive things and events in your life is the secret to universal success. It's a breakthrough even bigger than Einstein's renowned formula, E=MC squared. Einstein made a number of contributions in this field, and how it relates to our understanding of the universe.

Collider repairs top 20 million dollers

Hadron collider repairs to cost over twenty million dollers after damage caused just several days after start up.

FUTURE OF PHYSICS UNDER THREAT

Leading physicists have said that long term research is suffering because of a shortage of funding.
they have concluded that because of a 25%cut in funding for research grants is threatening the future of the field and has prompted many young promising physicists to leave and study in other diciplines .they say that many university physics departments are shrinking ,some thing that goverment denies.

ALCUBIERRE DRIVE EXPLAINED

This article is about the Alcubierre metric. For Spacewarp marble coaster, see Spacewarp ,
The Alcubierre metric, also known as the Alcubierre drive or Warp Drive, is a speculative mathematical model of a spacetime exhibiting features reminiscent of the fictional "warp drive" from Star Trek which can travel "Faster-than-light" (although not in a local sense - see below).
In 1994 the Mexican physicist Miguel Alcubierre proposed a method of stretching space in a wave which would in theory cause the fabric of space ahead of a spacecraft to contract and the space behind it to expand. The ship would ride this wave inside a region known as a warp bubble of flat space. Since the ship is not moving within this bubble, but carried along as the region itself moves, conventional relativistic effects such as time dilation do not apply in the way they would in the case of a ship moving at high velocity through flat spacetime. Also, this method of travel does not actually involve moving faster than light in a local sense, since a light beam within the bubble would still always move faster than the ship; it is only "faster than light" in the sense that, thanks to the contraction of the space in front of it, the ship could reach its destination faster than a light beam restricted to travelling outside the warp bubble. Thus, the Alcubierre drive does not contradict the conventional claim that relativity forbids a slower-than-light object to accelerate to faster-than-light speeds. However, there are no known methods to create such a warp bubble in a region that does not already contain one, or to leave the bubble once inside it, so the Alcubierre drive remains a theoretical concept at this time.
Mathematics of the Alcubierre drive
Concept of the Alcubierre warp drive, showing the opposing regions of expanding and contracting spacetime that propel the central region
Using the 3+1 formalism of general relativity, the spacetime is described by a foliation of space-like hypersurfaces of constant coordinate time t. The general form of the Alcubierre metric is:

where α is the lapse function that gives the interval of proper time between nearby hypersurfaces, βi is the shift vector that relates the spatial coordinate systems on different hypersurfaces and γij is a positive definite metric on each of the hypersurfaces. The particular form that Alcubierre studied] is defined by:
βy = βz = 0
γij = δij
where
and
with R > 0 and σ > 0 arbitrary parameters. With this particular form of the metric, it can be shown that the energy density measured by observers whose 4-velocity is normal to the hypersurfaces is given by

where g is the determinant of the metric tensor. Thus, as the energy density is negative, one needs exotic matte to travel faster than the speed of light'. The existence of exotic matter is not theoretically ruled out, the Casimir effect and the Accelerating Universe both lends support to the proposed existence of such matter. However, generating enough exotic matter and sustaining it to perform feats such as faster-than-light travel (and also to keep open the 'throat' of a wormhole) is thought to be impractical. Low has argued that within the context of general relativity, it is impossible to construct a warp drive in the absence of exotic matter.

It is generally believed that a consistent theory of quantum gravity will resolve such issues once and for all.

Alcubierre Metric
The Alcubierre Metric defines the so-called warp drive spacetime. This is a Lorentzian manifold which, if interpreted in the context of general relativity, exhibits features reminiscent of the warp drive from Star Trek: a warp bubble appears in previously flat spacetime and moves off at effectively superluminal speed. Inhabitants of the bubble feel no inertial effects. The object(s) within the bubble are not moving (locally) faster than light, instead, the space around them shifts so that the object(s) arrives at its destination faster than light would in normal space.

Mathematical representation
The Alcubierre metric may be written
where
and
Alcubierre chose a specific form for the function f, but other choices give a simpler spacetime exhibiting the desired "warp drive" effects more clearly and simply.
Physics of the Alcubierre drive
For those familiar with the effects of special relativity, such as Lorentz contraction and time dilation the Alcubierre metric has some apparently peculiar aspects. In particular, Alcubierre has shown that even when the ship is accelerating, it travels on a free-fall geodesic. In other words, a ship using the warp to accelerate and decelerate is always in free fall, and the crew would experience no accelerational g-forces Enormous tidal forces would be present near the edges of the flat-space volume because of the large space curvature there, but by suitable specification of the metric, these would be made very small within the volume occupied by the ship.
The original warp drive metric, and simple variants of it, happen to have the ADM form which is often used in discussing the initial value formulation of general relativity. This may explain the widespread misconception that this spacetime is a solution of the field equation of general relativity. Metrics in ADM form are adapted to a certain family of inertial observers, but these observers are not really physically distinguished from other such families. Alcubierre interpreted his "warp bubble" in terms of a contraction of "space" ahead of the bubble and an expansion behind. But this interpretation might be misleading, since the contraction and expansion actually refers to the relative motion of nearby members of the family of ADM observers.
In general relativity, one often first specifies a plausible distribution of matter and energy, and then finds the geometry of the spacetime associated with it; but it is also possible to run the Einstein field equations in the other direction, first specifying a metric and then finding the energy-momentum tensor associated with it, and this is what Alcubierre did in building his metric. This practice means that the solution can violate various energy conditions and require exotic matter The need for exotic matter leads to questions about whether it is actually possible to find a way to distribute the matter in an initial spacetime which lacks a "warp bubble" in such a way that the bubble will be created at a later time. Yet another problem is that, according to Krasnikov, it would be impossible to generate the bubble without being able to force the exotic matter to move at locally FTL speeds, which would require the existence of tachyons. Some methods have been suggested which would avoid the problem of tachyonic motion, but would probably generate a naked singularity at the front of the bubble.
Difficulties
Building the road
Krasnikov proposed that, if tachyonic matter could not be found or used, then a solution might be to arrange for masses along the path of the vessel to be set in motion in such a way that the required field was produced. But in this case the Alcubierre Drive vessel is not able to go dashing around the galaxy at will. It is only able to travel routes which, like a railroad, have first been equipped with the necessary infrastructure.
The pilot inside the bubble is causally disconnected with its walls and cannot carry out any action outside the bubble. However, it is necessary to place devices along the route in advance and, since the pilot cannot do this while "in transit", the bubble cannot be used for the first trip to a distant star. In other words, to travel to Vega (which is 26 light-years from the Earth) one first has to arrange everything so that the bubble moving toward Vega with a superluminal velocity would appear and these arrangements will always take more than 26 years.
It takes one to build one
Coule has argued that schemes such as the one proposed by Alcubierre are not feasible because the matter to be placed on the road beforehand has to be placed at superluminal speed. Thus, according to Coule, an Alcubierre Drive is required in order to build an Alcubierre Drive. Since none have been proven to exist already then the drive is impossible to construct, even if the metric is physically meaningful. Coule argues that an analogous objection will apply to any proposed method of constructing an Alcubierre Drive.
Energy requirement
Significant problems with the metric of this form stem from the fact that all known warp drive spacetimes violate various energy conditions. It is true that certain experimentally verified quantum phenomena, such as the Casimir effect, when described in the context of the quantum field theories, lead to stress-energy tensors which also violate the energy conditions and so one might hope that Alcubierre type warp drives could perhaps be physically realized by clever engineering taking advantage of such quantum effects. However, if certain quantum inequalities conjectured by Ford and Roman hold, then the energy requirements for some warp drives may be absurdly gigantic, e.g. the energy -1067gram equivalent might be required to transport a small spaceship across the Milky Way galaxy. This is orders of magnitude greater than the mass of the universe. Counterarguments to these apparent problems have been offered, but not everyone is convinced they can be overcome.
Chris Van Den Broeck, in 1999, has tried to address the potential issues. By contracting the 3+1 dimensional surface area of the 'bubble' being transported by the drive, while at the same time expanding the 3 dimensional volume contained inside, Van Den Broeck was able to reduce the total energy needed to transport small atoms to less than 3 solar masses. Later, by slightly modifying the Van Den Broeck metric, Krasnikov reduced the necessary total amount of negative energy to a few milligrams.

THE IDIOT,S GUIDE TO PHYSICS

The Idiot's Guide to Incomprehensible Physics Just nod and pretend you understand GRAVITYGravity is the mysterious force that makes all objects with mass attract each other. It explains why apples fall from trees and why you can't dunk. Einstein ascribed it to a distortion of space-time, a theory that holds true as long as you're talking about "big" stuff—from snowflakes on up to the cosmos. THE STANDARD MODELGravity is too weak to explain the strong bonds between subatomic particles. Break gravity, you get NASA. Break the nucleus of an atom, you could get an atomic bomb. Researchers have defined three forces—electromagne­tism, the strong force, and the weak force—that hold atoms together and regulate their decay. The catch is that the theory, known as the Standard Model, can't account for gravity. String TheoryThis is the leading contender for grand unification, a theory that would bring gravity and the Standard Model together into one happy package. It holds that at the core of every subatomic particle there are much, much smaller vibrating entities called superstrings, and that their vibrations form all energy and mass. But the theory also assumes the existence of nine or more dimensions of space, a concept that, so far, renders much of it untestable. E8With 248 individual coordinates, E8 is one of the most complex symmetrical shapes possible. (Many equations can be mapped out geo­metrically; if the math behind E8 were written in newspaper type, it would cover an area the size of Manhattan.) Physicists routinely use shapes to construct theories and probe relationships. Garrett Lisi noticed similarities between the equations of E8 and his own work on grand unification. By plotting particles and forces on various coordinates, he started generating potentially testable results that suggested an underlying mathematical structure to the universe.

WHAT ARE BLACK HOLES?

What are Black Holes ?
Black holes have not been proved to exist in space. Such phenomena which scientists consider must exist in the cosmos could explain the spinning of the galaxy,s. black holes as they are known are thought to be once enormous stars with unimaginable gravitational fields that they litarelly collapse in on themselves which means that light could not escape it. hence the name black hole. Einstein's universal model of relativity in the 20th century also the work of an Indian scholar, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar worked out the mathematical facts of how huge a star would have to be to produce a black hole. A black hole is believed to start with a star. The sun, with a diameter of about 870,000 miles, is considered a normal sized star, and is mainly a huge thermonuclear "reactor" which has enough "fuel" to keep it burning for many thousands of years. what happens when a star's fuel burns out? There are many things that can occour, depending on the size of the star. A cold burned out finished star is one example.very large stars hundreds of times larger than our sun have nuclear explosions constantly happening. When this nuclear energy is spent, however, such huge powerful stars undergo dramatic changes. A star can develop into a "neutron star." A neutron star can have a radius of about ten miles and weigh as much as hundreds of millions of tons per square inch. That's because with a neutron star, for example, you may have a body with a ten-mile radius have a gravity equivalent to a star the size of the sun. even larger stars scientists believe continue to collapse under their immense gravitational pull to a point where they basicly implode in on themselves to such a density that even light is twisted inside out And that's where the terminolagy black hole comes from, this immense density is apparently called[ i have read] a place-time bend. Its radius is much smaller than that of a neutron star. And, therefore, a "black hole of time an space" comes into being. A black hole has such a dense gravitational force that nothing, not even light, can escape its grip.

how do scientists know that black holes may be out there? well stars have been observed orbiting unseen objects and it is theorised these invisible objects must have unimaginable force to make a star orbit them.

HOW DOES NUCLEAR REACTION HAPPEN?

Nuclear reactions occur when neutrons are fired at closely packed atoms with heavy nuclei (uranium or plutonium isotopes). These heavy nuclei break apart into lighter nuclei when hit by a neutron, in turn generating more neutrons which bombard other nuclei, creating a chain reaction. This process is known as fission. (Another process known as fusion releases energy by fusing together nuclei rather than breaking them apart.) By breaking down the nuclei themselves rather than releasing energy through a conventional chemical reaction, atom bombs can release more than 80 terajoules of energy per kilogram (TJ/kg).

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ASTRONOMY SPACE AND BEYOND

Astronomy Space And Beyond
Astronomy could be distinct as the offshoot of skill that deals with the learning of natures and beckon of space bodies like stars, planets and galaxies. There are yet different definitions for Astronomy. This includes the analysis of worry and clothes further earth's atmosphere and having their own pure and compound properties. Some different views enter -Astronomy is the learning of everything. This is because astronomy is the inquiry of universe and everything is part of the universe. One can say that all these definitions rectify and, hence there are many sub fields within astronomy. Cosmologists, Astrometrists, Planetologist, Radio astronomers, Mathematical astronomers are some among these sub divisions. Cosmologists examine universe as a full including its source and opening. Planetologists do analysis about all those planets within the solar procedure and those orbiting hazy stars. Astrometrists assess distances coupled with universe. Again Radio astronomers use radio telescopes to report the universe. Numbers, calculations and mathematical astronomers worn statistics to clarify universe. We can't say that astronomy is a stop deserted subject. It is a combination of different fields. These fields embrace mathematics, geology, chemistry, physics, geology, ecology. Physics can be said to be as one of the most basic part of astronomy. That is why some of the astronomers are known as Astrophysicists. Astronomy could be said to be the oldest knowledge. During the early age, astronomers were priests and holy men, who tried to fix the puzzle of the universe. They tried to uncover planting cycles and celebrations. Astronomy theories where first developed and introduced by archaic Greeks. They made out theories about the universe object as an undivided. There were many astronomers who proved them to be great astronomers. Later many of the data provided by them proved to be immoral, as technology came brazen with a selection hand. Some of them contain Ptolemy, Copernicus, Galileo Galilee, Johannes Kepler etc. but one fact is convinced that without the contributions of all those greats the evidence known today could not have reached ahead. Again it can be said that astrology is the analysis of space. A crack to understand the narration and make up of universe can be termed to be as astronomy. A limitless vicinity of fields is covered under astronomy. They include stars, nebula, planets, sol, star clusters, galaxies, dusk count, black holes etc. each of these can be again alienated into numerous topics. Research is done in the whole electromagnetic spectrum. This includes ultraviolet, visible, x-ray and infrared. Thus it genuinely covers tons of things when it comes to astronomy.